Opioid Use Disorder in Nepal: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | aihealz
Psychiatry
Opioid Use Disorder.Care & specialists in Nepal
In Nepal, opioid Use Disorder is managed by psychiatrys. Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a chronic brain condition defined by compulsive use of prescription or illicit opioids despite escalating harm, driven by lasting changes to reward, stress, and self-control circuits. About 8.9 million Americans aged 12 and older met DSM-5-TR criteria for OUD in 2022 (SAMHSA NSDUH), and US opioid-involved overdose deaths exceeded 81,000 in 2023, three-quarters driven by illicitly manufactured fentanyl.
Suboxone (buprenorphine-naloxone) sublingual film — first-line office-based treatment for OUD. · Credit: Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0
aliases · Opioid Use Disorder (opioid addiction)· अफीम की लत (Afim ki lat)· Opioid-Abhängigkeit· Trouble lié à l'usage des opioïdes· reviewed May 13, 2026
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Reviewed by AIHealz Medical Editorial Board · PsychiatryLast reviewed May 13, 2026
Opioid use disorder (ICD-10: F11.10-F11.99) is the DSM-5-TR diagnosis covering problematic use of any opioid — prescription analgesics (oxycodone, hydrocodone, morphine), heroin, or synthetic opioids (fentanyl, methadone). Diagnosis requires 2 or more of 11 criteria within 12 months: opioids taken in larger amounts or longer than intended, persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down, large time spent obtaining/using/recovering, craving, role failure, interpersonal problems, giving up activities, hazardous use, continued use despite harm, tolerance, and withdrawal. Severity is graded mild (2-3), moderate (4-5), or severe (6+). Tolerance and withdrawal from appropriately prescribed opioids alone, in patients without other criteria, do not constitute OUD.
key facts
Prevalence
8.9 million Americans aged 12+ (3.2%) met OUD criteria in 2022 (SAMHSA NSDUH)
Demographics
Roughly equal in men and women in prescription-opioid OUD; men predominate in heroin/fentanyl OUD by ~2:1
Avg. age
Onset commonly 18-25; current overdose deaths concentrated in adults aged 25-54
Global cases
~40 million people worldwide with OUD; opioid-attributable deaths ~120,000 annually (WHO/UNODC 2023)
Specialist
Psychiatry
§ 02
How you might notice it
The key symptoms of Opioid Use Disorder are: Taking opioids in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended, including running out of a prescription early on most refill cycles., Persistent desire or repeated unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control opioid use, often described as 'every Monday I tell myself I'll stop'., Spending a great deal of time obtaining opioids, using them, or recovering from their effects — sometimes much of the waking day., Strong cravings or urges to use opioids, often triggered by physical pain, emotional distress, drug paraphernalia, or specific people and locations., Recurrent opioid use leading to failure to fulfill obligations at work, school, or home — missed shifts, missed appointments, missed parenting., Continued opioid use despite persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or worsened by the substance., Important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of opioid use..
01Taking opioids in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended, including running out of a prescription early on most refill cycles.
02Persistent desire or repeated unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control opioid use, often described as 'every Monday I tell myself I'll stop'.
03Spending a great deal of time obtaining opioids, using them, or recovering from their effects — sometimes much of the waking day.
04Strong cravings or urges to use opioids, often triggered by physical pain, emotional distress, drug paraphernalia, or specific people and locations.
§ 03
How it’s diagnosed
diagnosis
Diagnosis is clinical, based on DSM-5-TR interview confirming 2 or more of 11 criteria within 12 months. Universal screening should occur in primary care, emergency departments, prenatal care, and addiction settings. Validated screening tools include the Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription medications, and other Substance use (TAPS) tool, the Opioid Risk Tool (ORT) before prescribing, and the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10). Urine drug screening is supportive — useful to identify undisclosed opioid use, monitor adherence to prescribed buprenorphine or methadone, and detect adulterants — but immunoassay panels often miss fentanyl, methadone, and buprenorphine without specifically ordered confirmation testing. The Clinical Opioid Withdrawal Scale (COWS) quantifies acute withdrawal severity in patients presenting with cessation: scores 5-12 mild, 13-24 moderate, 25-36 moderately severe, 37+ severe. Buprenorphine induction is typically initiated when COWS ≥8 to avoid precipitated withdrawal. Risk-stratification for overdose requires assessment of route (injection vs oral), fentanyl exposure, polysubstance use (alcohol, benzodiazepines, stimulants), recent abstinence (tolerance loss), and access to naloxone. Always assess co-occurring psychiatric disorders, infectious complications (HIV, hepatitis C, endocarditis), and chronic pain. Distinguish OUD from physical dependence in legitimate chronic pain patients — dependence alone does not constitute disorder if no other DSM-5-TR criteria are met.
Key tests
01
Structured DSM-5-TR criteria interviewReference standard for diagnosis. Confirms 2 or more of 11 criteria within 12 months and grades severity (mild 2-3, moderate 4-5, severe ≥6). Distinguishes OUD from physiologic dependence in pain patients.
02
TAPS or DAST-10 screening toolBrief validated screen for substance use disorders applicable in primary care and emergency settings. Scores guide need for full DSM-5-TR evaluation.
✓Extended-release buprenorphine (Sublocade 100-300 mg IM monthly)
✓Extended-release naltrexone (Vivitrol 380 mg IM monthly)
surgical options
Subcutaneous buprenorphine implant (Probuphine)Non-inferior to sublingual buprenorphine for retention and abstinence in registration trials; explant rates 5-10% for site complications.
Endocarditis surgery (valve replacement)30-day mortality 5-10% in optimized centers; long-term outcomes depend on MOUD engagement post-surgery.
§ 05
Causes & risk factors
known causes
Exposure to prescription opioids and increasing potency of illicit supply
Roughly 75% of US heroin users in the 2010s reported initial exposure through prescription opioids. The post-2014 transition of the illicit market to fentanyl (50-100x more potent than morphine) has dramatically accelerated tolerance and overdose risk.
Genetic vulnerability
Heritability is approximately 50%. Variants in OPRM1 (mu-opioid receptor), CYP2D6 (metabolism of codeine to morphine), DRD2, and the chromosome 15q25 cluster modulate reward sensitivity, metabolism, and craving.
Neuroadaptation in reward, stress, and executive circuits
Chronic mu-opioid receptor activation downregulates endogenous opioid signaling, upregulates the locus coeruleus noradrenergic stress system, and locks the prefrontal-striatal circuit into reward anticipation. These changes drive both withdrawal and craving long after detoxification.
Untreated chronic pain
Persistent moderate-to-severe pain is one of the most common entry points into OUD, particularly in patients prescribed escalating opioid doses for low back pain, post-surgical pain, or cancer-survivor pain without multimodal alternatives.
Co-occurring psychiatric disorders
Depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD, and ADHD each elevate OUD risk substantially. Self-medication of distressing affect with opioids is one driver; shared genetic vulnerability is another. Roughly 40-50% of people with OUD have a co-occurring psychiatric disorder.
Adverse childhood experiences
ACE score of 4 or more raises lifetime OUD risk approximately 5-fold. Trauma-related stress dysregulation drives reliance on the analgesic and dissociative effects of opioids in adolescence and young adulthood.
risk factors
§ 06
Living with it
01Use multimodal non-opioid pain management — physical therapy, NSAIDs, topical agents, gabapentinoids, antidepressants for chronic pain — wherever possible
02Limit acute-pain opioid prescriptions to 3-5 days for most surgical and dental indications; longer durations substantially raise persistent-use risk
03Screen for OUD risk before prescribing long-term opioids using the Opioid Risk Tool or similar instruments
04Co-prescribe naloxone with any opioid prescription above a daily morphine-equivalent threshold (CDC recommends 50 MME/day)
05Make naloxone available without prescription via state standing orders; community distribution reduces overdose mortality by ~20%
06Treat co-occurring depression, anxiety, PTSD, and ADHD to remove the self-medication driver
•Adequate hydration with water and electrolyte-rich foods, especially during early recovery
§ 07
When to seek help
why see a psychiatry
An addiction medicine specialist, addiction psychiatrist, or specialized program should be involved for moderate-to-severe OUD, fentanyl-era buprenorphine induction, pregnancy with OUD, co-occurring psychiatric or infectious disorders, recent overdose, recent incarceration, or methadone access. Primary care can effectively manage stable OUD with buprenorphine now that the MAT Act 2022 has removed the X-waiver — but every primary care clinician should be ready to refer urgently and to prescribe take-home naloxone universally.
Mild OUDMeets 2-3 of 11 DSM-5-TR criteria. Often associated with prescription opioids prescribed for legitimate pain, with escalating use developing in 8-12% of long-term users. Highly responsive to buprenorphine and brief behavioral interventions.
Moderate OUDMeets 4-5 criteria. Functional impairment present; medication-assisted treatment strongly indicated. Combined behavioral plus pharmacotherapy is standard of care.
Severe OUDMeets 6 or more criteria. High overdose risk, particularly in the fentanyl era. Methadone or buprenorphine, ideally combined with intensive case management, are first-line; injectable extended-release agents reduce daily-adherence burden.
OUD in early remissionPreviously met criteria but has not met any criteria (other than craving) for 3-12 months. Overdose risk paradoxically peaks in this period after tolerance loss; medication continuation strongly recommended.
OUD in sustained remissionNo criteria (other than craving) met for 12 months or more. Lifelong medication continuation is recommended by ASAM, NIDA, and most addiction specialists; stopping medication raises 12-month relapse risk approximately 4-fold.
On maintenance therapyDSM-5-TR specifier for patients receiving methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone. These patients are in treatment, not failing it, and may meet only the criteria of tolerance and withdrawal, which are expected pharmacologic effects.
Living with Opioid Use Disorder
Timeline
Acute withdrawal peaks at 36-72 hours after the last opioid dose and resolves over 5-10 days with appropriate management. Post-acute withdrawal — anhedonia, sleep disturbance, irritability, craving — persists for 4-12 weeks. Cognitive recovery continues over 6-18 months. Once stabilized on methadone or buprenorphine, most patients describe a 'return to normal life' within 4-12 weeks. Hepatic and renal function generally normalize within 8-12 weeks. Long-term remission requires ongoing medication and behavioral support; the steepest reduction in relapse risk occurs during years 2-5 of sustained engagement.
Lifestyle
01Carry naloxone and ensure household members know how to use it; never use opioids alone
02Use fentanyl test strips before any non-prescribed opioid use as a harm-reduction step if active use continues
03Avoid combining opioids with benzodiazepines, alcohol, or sleep medications — these combinations cause the majority of overdose deaths
04Maintain regular sleep (7-9 hours nightly), exercise, and meal timing to stabilize stress and reward systems
05Engage with mutual-support groups (Narcotics Anonymous, SMART Recovery) at least weekly during the first year of recovery
06Identify and avoid personal high-risk triggers — specific people, locations, emotions, and times of day associated with prior use
Daily management
Complementary approaches
Contingency managementBehavioral therapy providing tangible incentives (vouchers, prizes) for verified abstinence or treatment engagement. Strong randomized-trial evidence (Petry 2017); effect size among the largest in addiction psychotherapy. Underutilized due to funding constraints rather than evidence.
Twelve-step facilitation and mutual support (Narcotics Anonymous, SMART Recovery)Combined with medication, mutual-support participation improves retention and long-term abstinence in observational and matched-cohort studies. SMART Recovery offers a secular CBT-based alternative.
Choosing a doctor
Look for board certification in addiction medicine or addiction psychiatry, willingness to prescribe both buprenorphine and naltrexone, ready linkage to a methadone program when needed, and harm-reduction services on-site (naloxone distribution, syringe exchange referral, fentanyl test strips). Continuity matters — OUD recovery is a multi-year process. Ask whether the practice can also provide hepatitis C treatment, infectious-disease screening, and mental health care, or refers in a coordinated way.
Patient support resources
SAMHSA National Helpline →1-800-662-HELP (4357) — free, confidential, 24/7 US treatment referral and information service in English and Spanish.
Narcotics Anonymous →Global fellowship of mutual support; meetings free and available in nearly every community and online.
NEXT Distro →Mail-based naloxone and harm-reduction supplies in the US for people who cannot access in-person services.
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Frequently asked
What is opioid use disorder?▾▴
Opioid use disorder (OUD) is the medical diagnosis for problematic use of prescription opioids, heroin, or fentanyl. It is defined by meeting 2 or more of 11 DSM-5-TR criteria in a 12-month period — including loss of control, tolerance, withdrawal, craving, and continued use despite harm.
How is opioid use disorder treated?▾▴
Three FDA-approved medications are first-line: methadone, buprenorphine (Suboxone), and extended-release naltrexone (Vivitrol). Methadone and buprenorphine each reduce all-cause mortality by approximately 50% compared with detoxification alone.
What is the difference between methadone and buprenorphine?▾▴
Methadone is a full mu-opioid agonist dispensed daily at federally regulated US opioid treatment programs. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist with a ceiling effect on respiratory depression, prescribed in office-based settings.
What is Suboxone?▾▴
Suboxone is a sublingual film or tablet combining buprenorphine (a partial opioid agonist) with naloxone (an opioid antagonist). The naloxone deters injection misuse but is not absorbed sublingually.
How do I get naloxone?▾▴
Naloxone is available without a prescription in every US state via standing-order pharmacy access, free from many community programs and health departments, and increasingly through mail-order services like NEXT Distro. The intranasal spray (4 mg or 8 mg per dose) is the most common form.
What does opioid withdrawal feel like?▾▴
Opioid withdrawal causes flu-like symptoms: muscle aches, runny nose, watery eyes, sweating, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, restless legs, anxiety, and insomnia. Symptoms begin 8-24 hours after the last dose, peak at 36-72 hours, and largely resolve over 5-10 days.
How long does opioid withdrawal last?▾▴
Acute withdrawal peaks at 36-72 hours after the last short-acting opioid dose and resolves over 5-10 days. Methadone withdrawal can last 2-4 weeks due to its long half-life. Post-acute withdrawal — sleep disturbance, low mood, craving — can persist for 4-12 weeks.
Is opioid use disorder a disease?▾▴
Yes. The American Medical Association, World Health Organization, and National Institute on Drug Abuse all classify OUD as a chronic brain disease. Imaging and genetic studies show measurable changes in reward, stress, and executive-function circuits that persist long after acute drug use stops.
Can opioid use disorder be cured?▾▴
OUD is not curable in the sense that the underlying brain changes do not fully reverse, but it is highly treatable and goes into long-term remission for most people on medication. Methadone or buprenorphine reduces mortality and supports recovery indefinitely.
Will I have to take medication forever?▾▴
Long-term continuation of buprenorphine or methadone is recommended for most patients with moderate to severe OUD. Tapering off after sustained remission raises 12-month relapse risk approximately 4-fold and is rarely indicated.
What is precipitated withdrawal?▾▴
Precipitated withdrawal is severe acute withdrawal triggered by taking buprenorphine or naloxone while opioids are still active in the system. Buprenorphine's high receptor affinity displaces full agonists, dropping receptor activation suddenly.
Is buprenorphine just trading one addiction for another?▾▴
No. Buprenorphine and methadone produce physical dependence but not the loss of control, escalating use, or harm that define addiction. On stable medication, people work, drive, parent, and participate in life normally.
Can pregnant women take buprenorphine or methadone?▾▴
Yes. Both methadone and buprenorphine are recommended in pregnancy and improve maternal and fetal outcomes compared with untreated OUD or detoxification. Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) can occur but is manageable in modern neonatal units.
What is fentanyl, and why is it so dangerous?▾▴
Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid 50-100 times more potent than morphine. Since 2014 it has saturated the US illicit drug supply, often replacing or contaminating heroin and counterfeit pills. Doses fatal to opioid-naive users are smaller than a grain of salt.
What is medication-assisted treatment (MAT)?▾▴
Medication-assisted treatment (now called medication for opioid use disorder, MOUD) combines FDA-approved medications — methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone — with behavioral therapy and recovery support. It is the gold standard of OUD care and is recommended by SAMHSA, ASAM, NIDA, and WHO.
Can I get buprenorphine from my regular doctor?▾▴
Yes. Since the MAT Act of December 2022, any DEA-registered clinician in the US can prescribe buprenorphine — the previous X-waiver requirement has been eliminated. Primary care physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants can all prescribe.
Why is overdose risk highest after rehab or jail?▾▴
Tolerance falls during forced abstinence. Returning to a previously normal dose can be fatal. Studies show 12-50 fold increased overdose mortality in the 2 weeks after release from incarceration. Starting methadone or buprenorphine before release dramatically reduces this risk.
Does insurance cover OUD treatment?▾▴
Most US insurance plans, including Medicaid and Medicare, cover buprenorphine, methadone, and naltrexone for OUD. The Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act requires equivalent coverage to medical/surgical care.
Can teenagers have opioid use disorder?▾▴
Yes. OUD can be diagnosed in adolescents using DSM-5-TR criteria. Adolescent OUD is increasingly fentanyl-related and carries particularly high overdose risk. AAP guidelines recommend offering medication-assisted treatment, including buprenorphine, to adolescents with moderate or severe OUD.
How does naltrexone differ from buprenorphine?▾▴
Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist — it blocks opioid receptors entirely without producing any agonist effect. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist that activates receptors enough to suppress withdrawal and craving.
What happens if I miss my buprenorphine dose?▾▴
Missing one dose typically does not cause severe withdrawal because buprenorphine has a long half-life. Take the dose as soon as you remember on the same day. Missing 2-3 consecutive doses can trigger withdrawal and craving; contact your prescriber promptly.
Recurrent opioid use leading to failure to fulfill obligations at work, school, or home — missed shifts, missed appointments, missed parenting.
06Continued opioid use despite persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or worsened by the substance.
07Important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of opioid use.
08Recurrent opioid use in physically hazardous situations such as driving, operating machinery, or caring for children while impaired.
09Continued use despite knowledge of a persistent physical or psychological problem caused or worsened by opioids — often constipation, fatigue, depression, or low testosterone.
10Tolerance — needing markedly increased amounts of opioid to achieve the same effect, or markedly diminished effect from the same amount.
11Withdrawal syndrome when opioid use is reduced or stopped — yawning, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, sweating, dilated pupils, gooseflesh, anxiety, restless legs, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea — or taking opioids to relieve or avoid these symptoms.
early warning signs
•Running out of prescription opioids more than 3-5 days before the next refill on a chronic prescription
•Requesting early refills, lost prescriptions, or seeking duplicate prescriptions from multiple prescribers
•Pinpoint pupils, sedation, or nodding off mid-conversation — signs of recent opioid use
•Constipation, low libido, or amenorrhea in a person on long-term opioid therapy
•Use of opioids primarily for emotional rather than physical relief
● emergency signs
•Slow or stopped breathing, blue lips, and unresponsive to shouting or sternal rub — opioid overdose requiring immediate naloxone and 911
•Severe agitation, confusion, or fever in a patient with recent overdose reversal — possible precipitated withdrawal needing supportive care
•Skin and soft-tissue infection at injection sites with fever, red streaks, or rapidly expanding cellulitis — possible necrotizing infection
•New-onset chest pain, fever, and night sweats in an injection drug user — infective endocarditis must be excluded urgently
•Severe wound that does not heal or has black/leathery edges in a fentanyl/xylazine user — xylazine-associated necrotic ulcers require specialized wound care
Urine drug screen (UDS)Detects opioid use, polysubstance use, and adherence to prescribed medication. Standard immunoassay panels miss fentanyl, methadone, and buprenorphine — confirmation testing or fentanyl-specific test strips should be added.
05
HIV, hepatitis C, and hepatitis B testingStandard infectious-disease workup for any person using injection drugs. Hepatitis C in particular is curable with 8-12 weeks of direct-acting antivirals, and treatment should not be deferred for active drug use.
06
Echocardiogram in injection drug users with feverRules out infective endocarditis, which has 30-day mortality of 15-20% in injection drug users. Required workup for any persistent fever in this population.
Outlook
OUD is a chronic relapsing condition with outcomes comparable to type 2 diabetes when treated with medication. On methadone or buprenorphine, all-cause mortality falls by approximately 50%, overdose mortality by 60-80%, and HIV and hepatitis C transmission decline substantially. One-year retention in MOUD is 40-70% in well-run programs; many patients require multiple treatment episodes before achieving sustained stability. Lifetime prognosis is heavily influenced by access to medication: in regions where MOUD is widely available, mortality approaches population-typical levels; where access is restricted, OUD remains among the leading causes of premature death in adults aged 18-50. Untreated OUD carries 10-fold higher all-cause mortality than the general population (Hser 2017 cohort study), driven by overdose, infectious disease, cardiovascular events, and suicide. Long-term continuation of medication is recommended; tapering off after sustained remission raises 12-month relapse risk approximately 4-fold and is rarely indicated outside special circumstances.
Family history of OUD or other substance use disordergenetic
First-degree relative with OUD raises personal risk approximately 3-4 fold. Variants in OPRM1, CYP2D6, and DRD2 contribute most of the documented genetic effect.
Prior or current chronic painmodifiable
Long-duration opioid prescription for chronic non-cancer pain produces OUD in 8-12% of users (Vowles 2015 meta-analysis). Multimodal pain management substantially reduces this risk.
Co-occurring depression, anxiety, PTSD, or ADHDmodifiable
Comorbid psychiatric disorder is present in 40-50% of people with OUD. Integrated treatment of both improves outcomes for each.
History of injection drug usemodifiable
Injection raises HIV, hepatitis C, endocarditis, and overdose risk relative to oral or insufflated use. Harm-reduction services and medication-assisted treatment reduce all these.
Adverse childhood experiencesnon-modifiable
ACE score of 4 or more raises lifetime OUD risk approximately 5-fold. Trauma-informed care improves engagement and retention.
Age 18-25 at first opioid exposurenon-modifiable
Younger first exposure produces more rapid neuroadaptation. Adolescents prescribed opioids after a single dental procedure are at 33% higher risk of persistent use at one year (Harbaugh 2018).
Living in a region with high illicit fentanyl supplyenvironmental
Fentanyl has saturated the US, Canadian, and increasingly the European illicit supply. Overdose risk per use rises substantially when fentanyl displaces heroin.
Recent incarceration or hospital dischargeenvironmental
Loss of tolerance during periods of forced abstinence (jail, hospital) followed by return to prior dose raises overdose mortality 12-50 fold in the first 2 weeks (Binswanger 2013).
•Protein-rich meals at regular intervals to stabilize blood sugar and mood
•Magnesium-rich foods (leafy greens, nuts, seeds) for sleep and restless-leg symptoms in early recovery
foods to avoid
•Alcohol — additive overdose risk with opioids and a common substitution trap in early recovery
•Grapefruit juice, which can elevate methadone and some opioid levels via CYP3A4 inhibition
•Excessive caffeine, which worsens anxiety and sleep disturbance during induction and stabilization
•Skipping meals during methadone stabilization, which can worsen GI side effects and mood symptoms
Opioid-induced hypogonadism, constipation, and immune dysfunction in long-term users
07Increased suicide risk during periods of acute withdrawal and untreated co-occurring depression
choosing the right hospital
01Inpatient and emergency-department buprenorphine induction protocols available 24/7
02Naloxone distributed at discharge to every patient with OUD or recent overdose
03Hospital-based addiction medicine consult service
04Capacity for medically supervised methadone initiation in pregnant patients
05Direct linkage to office-based or opioid treatment program continuation within 7 days of discharge
Essential facilities
Federally regulated US Opioid Treatment Programs (OTPs) for methadone access — directory at SAMHSA.govOffice-based buprenorphine treatment in primary care, addiction medicine, and psychiatry practicesBridge programs and 'low-barrier' clinics offering same-day buprenorphine induction (e.g., Boston Medical Center, Yale's Project ASSERT)Veterans Health Administration addiction treatment programs
01
Take buprenorphine or methadone at the same time daily — adherence is the single strongest predictor of treatment success
02Keep naloxone within easy reach at home and carry it when traveling; check expiration date every 6 months
03Attend medication appointments and counseling sessions consistently during the first year of recovery
04Manage constipation proactively with stool softeners or osmotic laxatives during methadone or buprenorphine maintenance
05Have an explicit relapse plan: who to call, where to go, and what to do in the first hour after any slip
Exercise
Regular aerobic exercise improves mood, sleep, and constipation — three of the most common chronic complaints in OUD recovery. Aim for 150 minutes per week of moderate activity, with 2-3 sessions of strength training. Group classes can substitute for the social rituals previously built around using. Avoid high-intensity exertion in the first 3-5 days of withdrawal due to autonomic instability.
